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Schnalzlaute die Konsonanten und die Phonetik : nd-andy Lübeck. Follow me:




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Schnalzlaute die Konsonanten und die Phonetik : nd-andy Lübeck. Follow me:


Schnalzlaute auch Konsonanten genannt und Zischlauten, gibt es in der Phonetik fast von allen Sprachen:









Im Deutschen entsprechen sie meist den Buchstaben: B, C, D, F, G, H, J, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, ß, T, V, W, X, Z.
Schnalzlaute und Zischlauten auch Konsonanten genannt werden im Verbund eines Wortes fast immer ohne ihr eigenes Vokal deu.: Selbstlaut wie a, e, i, o, u ausgesprochen, beim Buchstabieren ist das ganz anders. Buchstabiert werden diese immer mit einem ganz bestimmten Vokal oder noch anderen Lauten. Beim Buchstabieren werden die Buchstaben anders ausgesprochen als in Wörtern.

Spreche mal einzeln diese Konsonanten ohne ihren Vokal aus, dann hörst Du, dass es sich um Schnalzlaute handelt, aber kein Staat worldwide will zugeben, dass es sich auch bei seiner eigenen Sprache zum Teil um Schnalzlaute handelt. Nur irgendwelchen angeblich Wilden die man anscheinend nicht als Menschen anerkennen will, werden die Schnalzlaute dann zugeschrieben.

http://de.wiktionary.org/wiki/Konsonant
http://de.wiktionary.org/wiki/Klicklaut

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Phonetik:

http://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Klick_%28Phonetik%29&oldid=75229496&printable=yes

Klick (Phonetik)
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Artikulationsarten
Pulmonal-egressive Laute

* Plosive
* Nasale
* Vibranten
* Taps
* Flaps
* Frikative
* Affrikaten
* Approximanten
* Laterale

Nichtpulmonische Laute

* Ejektive
* Ingressive Laute
o Klicks (Schnalzlaute)
o Implosive

Ein Klick (auch Klicklaut, Schnalz(laut), Injektiv) ist ein velar-ingressiver Verschlusslaut, der durch zwei Verschlussbildungen im Vokaltrakt (Ansatzrohr) gebildet wird. Die Geräuschbildung dieser Laute entsteht durch das Öffnen des primären Verschlusses der entstandenen oralen Luftkammer, in welche die umgebende Luft infolgedessen schnell hineinströmt, um den Unterdruck auszugleichen.

Die Klicks werden auf verschiedene Weise durch Schnalzen mit der Zunge gebildet. Um die Klicks zu erzeugen, muss die Zunge eine saugende Bewegung ausführen. Die Stellung der Zunge und die Art des Atemholens bringt ganz verschiedene Klicks hervor.

Bei der Verwendung in Wörtern ist es für Nichtmuttersprachler recht schwierig, sie mit umgebenden Konsonanten und Vokalen zu verbinden.
Inhaltsverzeichnis
[Verbergen]

* 1 Vorkommen
* 2 Arten
* 3 Siehe auch
* 4 Literatur
* 5 Einzelnachweise
* 6 Weblinks

Vorkommen

Schnalzen kommt in vielen Sprachen vor, beispielsweise als Ausdruck des Missfallens oder zur Erregung von Aufmerksamkeit. Die einzigen lebenden Sprachen jedoch, in denen Klicklaute als reguläre Sprachlaute (bzw. Phoneme) verwendet werden, sind die afrikanischen Khoisan-Sprachen, aber auch benachbarte Sprachen der Bantu-Sprachgruppe (z. B. Zulu, Xhosa, Süd-Sotho und Yeyi) sowie die kuschitische Sprache Dahalo, die solche Laute höchstwahrscheinlich von den Khoisan übernommen haben.[1] In allen drei Sprachgruppen zusammen sind es etwa 80 Sprachen. Einige der Khoisan-Sprachen, wie etwa das !Xóõ, haben über 80 verschiedene Klicklaute in ihrem Phoneminventar.

Die einzige nichtafrikanische Sprache, von der man weiß, dass Klicks regulär benutzt wurden, ist Demiin, eine alternative Sprachkodierung, die von Sprechern des Lardil, einer australischen Sprache, in einer Art Sprachspiel verwendet wurde. Die Sprache ist mittlerweile allerdings ausgestorben.
Arten

Die International Phonetic Association (IPA) differenziert in ihren Publikationen zwischen fünf Clicks und ordnet diesen entsprechende Zeichen zu (Internationales Phonetisches Alphabet):[2]

* Bilabial [ʘ]: Ähnlich einem Luftkuss mit ungerundeten Lippen. anhören?/i
* Dental [ǀ]: Die Zungenspitze wird an die Vorderzähne gebracht. Diesen Laut verwendet man im Deutschen manchmal, um Tadel oder Enttäuschung auszudrücken. anhören?/i
* (Post)alveolar [ǃ]: Die Zungenspitze wird möglichst weit nach oben an die Decke der Mundhöhle gebracht. anhören?/i
* Palatoalveolar [ǂ]: Die Zungenspitze wird an die Vorderseite des harten Gaumens angepresst und dann so rasch wie möglich zurückgezogen. Das klingt etwa wie ein knallender Korken. anhören?/i
* Alveolar lateral [ǁ]: Die Zunge wird seitwärts an die Backenzähne gebracht. anhören?/i

Siehe auch

* Liste der IPA-Zeichen #Sonstige

Literatur

* Otto von Essen: Allgemeine und angewandte Phonetik. 5, neubearbeitetete und erweiterte Auflage. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1979, S. 27f., 115 (über Schnalzlaute/Klicklaute).

Einzelnachweise

1. ↑ G. N. Clement: Phonology. In: Bernd Heine u. Derek Nurse: African languages: an introduction. Cambridge University Press, 2000, S. 150.
2. ↑ The International Phonetic Association: Reproduction of The International Phonetic Alphabet (Revised to 2005), Consonants (Non-Pulmonic), online unter http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA/nonpulmonic.html, abgerufen am 1. Februar 2009

Weblinks
Wiktionary Wiktionary: Klicklaut – Bedeutungserklärungen, Wortherkunft, Synonyme, Übersetzungen

* Klicklaute (PDF-Dokument; 302 KB)
* Klaus Wagner: Einführung in Phonetik und Phonologie (PDF-Datei; 2,60 MB)
* Die Sprachen Afrikas
* Gibt es primitive Sprachen? Interview mit Christa Kilian-Hatz
* Hörbeispiele von Klicklauten in !Xóõ

Von „http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klick_(Phonetik)“
Kategorien: Artikulationsart | Phonetik
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Konsonanten:

http://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Konsonant&oldid=72283753&printable=yes

Konsonant
aus Wikipedia, der freien Enzyklopädie
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Unter einem Konsonanten (v. lat.: con = mit + sonare = tönen; auch Mittöner oder Mitlaut) versteht man einerseits einen Laut, dessen Artikulation eine Verengung des Stimmtraktes beinhaltet, so dass der Atemluftstrom ganz oder teilweise blockiert wird und es zu hörbaren Turbulenzen (Luftwirbelungen) kommt. Konsonanten sind Hemmnis überwindende Laute. Hierzu zählen im Deutschen die Gruppe der Obstruenten (Plosive, Frikative, Affrikaten) und die Gruppe der Sonoranten (Liquide/Laterale, Nasale) sowie der Halbvokal oder Halbkonsonant /j/.

Es werden unter Konsonanten gemeinhin auch die Buchstaben verstanden, die derartige Laute repräsentieren. Um der verbreiteten Verwechslung bzw. Gleichsetzung von Lauten und Buchstaben vorzubeugen, ist es sinnvoll, den Begriff Konsonantenbuchstaben zu verwenden.

Im Deutschen entsprechen sie meist den Buchstaben: B, C, D, F, G, H, J, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, ß, T, V, W, X, Z.


Pulmonale Konsonanten gemäß IPA bilabial labio-
dental dental alveolar post-
alveolar retroflex palatal velar uvular pha-
ryngal glottal
stl. sth. stl. sth. stl. sth. stl. sth. stl. sth. stl. sth. stl. sth. stl. sth. stl. sth. stl. sth. stl. sth.
Plosive p b t d ʈ ɖ c ɟ k ɡ q ɢ ʔ
Nasale m ɱ n ɳ ɲ ŋ ɴ
Vibranten ʙ r ʀ
Taps/Flaps ⱱ ɾ ɽ
Frikative ɸ β f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ ʂ ʐ ç ʝ x ɣ χ ʁ ħ ʕ h ɦ
lat. Frikative ɬ ɮ
Approximanten ʋ ɹ ɻ j w¹
lat. Approximanten l ɭ ʎ ʟ
¹)Als stimmhafter velarer Approximant (Halbvokal) wurde hier die labialisierte Variante [w] eingefügt, anstatt der nicht labialisierten Variante [ɰ].

Sie stehen den Vokalbuchstaben (Selbstlauten, Vokalgraphemen/Kerngraphemen) A, Ä, E, I, O, Ö, U, Ü, Y gegenüber.

Zur artikulatorischen Beschreibung von Konsonanten werden die folgenden Kriterien verwendet:

* Stimmbeteiligung (stimmhaft oder stimmlos)
* Artikulationsort
* Artikulationsart

Beispielsweise lässt sich ein /m/ wie in Oma gemäß diesen Kriterien als stimmhafter bilabialer Nasal charakterisieren.

Unter akustisch-auditiven Kriterien betrachtet, unterscheiden sich Konsonanten von Vokalen im Grad ihrer Sonorität. Unter Sonorität versteht man die Schallfülle, d.h. die unterschiedliche akustische Reichweite der Laute.

Da jede Silbe einen Laut aufweist, dessen Sonorität die seiner Nachbarlaute übertrifft, haben Vokale eine größere Schallfülle als Konsonanten. Den Konsonanten fallen dadurch bestimmte Positionen in der Silbenstruktur zu, allgemein am Silbenanfang und -Ende, d.h. Konsonanten sind normalerweise keine Silbenträger. Als Ausnahmen davon sind allerdings die Sonoranten: Approximanten (Vokale in eigentlich konsonantischer Position, etwa jung /jʊŋ/ aber phonetisch [i̯ʊŋ] und nasale und laterale Konsonanten (Konsonanten als Sonoritätsmaximum im Silbenreim wie etwa in Matten [matn̩] zu sehen.

Im Deutschen lautet das Wort mit der längsten Konsonantenbuchstabenfolge – wenn man nur Wörter mitzählt, die in üblichen Wörterbüchern verzeichnet sind – vermutlich Angstschweiß (fünf Konsonanten-Phoneme bzw. -Laute in Folge, die mit Hilfe von acht Konsonantenbuchstaben dargestellt werden).
Weblinks
Wiktionary Wiktionary: Konsonant (Substantiv) – Bedeutungserklärungen, Wortherkunft, Synonyme, Übersetzungen
Wiktionary Wiktionary: konsonant (Adjektiv) – Bedeutungserklärungen, Wortherkunft, Synonyme, Übersetzungen
Von „http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konsonant“
Kategorie: Konsonant
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Zischlaut:

http://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zischlaut&oldid=75843183&printable=yes


Ausblenden
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Zischlaut
aus Wikipedia, der freien Enzyklopädie
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Artikulationsorte für Zischlaute:
2. endolabial 4. alveolar 5. postalveolar 6. präpalatal 7. palatal
Artikulation eines alveolaren Frikativs (s-Laut)
Artikulation eines labiodentalen Frikativs (f-Laut)

Der Begriff Zischlaut (Sibilant) bezeichnet in der Phonetik einen Laut, der mit einem hörbaren Pfeifen oder Zischen einhergeht. Ein solcher Laut gehört in der Regel zu den Frikativen.
Inhaltsverzeichnis
[Verbergen]

* 1 Artikulation
* 2 Liste der Zischlaute
* 3 Affrikaten
* 4 Weblinks

Artikulation

Den Zischlaut erzeugt man bei einer Mundstellung, bei der die aus dem Mund ausströmende Luft eine enge Stelle vor oder hinter den Zähnen passieren muss. Es handelt sich dabei also um einen sogenannten Reibelaut (Frikativ), der an den Lippen (labial), am Zahndamm (alveolar bzw. retroflex) oder am vorderen Gaumen (palatal) gebildet wird.

Die Bezeichnung Zischlaut ist allerdings keine feste Definition. Je nach Aussprache ist das Zischen bei den stimmhaften Lauten wesentlich geringer zu vernehmen, sodass diese manchmal nicht als Zischlaute bezeichnet werden. Bei Personen mit Zahnlücken hingegen ist das Pfeifen mitunter auch bei stimmhaften Zischlauten sehr deutlich zu hören.
Liste der Zischlaute

Nach dem Internationalen Phonetischen Alphabet gibt es folgende Zischlaute:

* [ɸ] Stimmloser bilabialer Frikativ
* [β] Stimmhafter bilabialer Frikativ
* [f] Stimmloser labiodentaler Frikativ (wie in Fisch)
* [v] Stimmhafter labiodentaler Frikativ (wie in Wasser)
* [s] Stimmloser alveolarer Frikativ (wie in Haus)
* [z] Stimmhafter alveolarer Frikativ (wie in Suse)
* [ɬ] Stimmloser alveolarer lateraler Frikativ
* [ɮ] Stimmhafter alveolarer lateraler Frikativ
* [ʃ] Stimmloser postalveolarer Frikativ (wie in Schule)
* [ʒ] Stimmhafter postalveolarer Frikativ (wie in Garage)
* [ʂ] Stimmloser retroflexer Frikativ
* [ʐ] Stimmhafter retroflexer Frikativ
* [ç] Stimmloser palataler Frikativ (wie in ich, daher auch Ich-Laut)
* [ʝ] Stimmhafter palataler Frikativ

Affrikaten

Durch Kombination von einem Plosiv mit einem homorganen Frikativ entsteht eine sogenannte Affrikate. Die Zischlaute sind im engeren Sinne zwar eine Untergruppe der Frikative, da jedoch einige der Affrikaten inzwischen als eigenständiges Phonem aufgefasst werden, gehören sie auch in die Gruppe der Zischlaute.

Solche Affrikaten sind unter anderem:

* [ts] (wie in Zaun, Katze)
* [dz]
* [tç] (wie in Mädchen)
* [tʃ] (wie in Matsch)
* [dʒ] (wie in Dschungel)


Siehe auch: Artikulation (Linguistik), Artikulationsort
Weblinks
Wiktionary Wiktionary: Zischlaut – Bedeutungserklärungen, Wortherkunft, Synonyme, Übersetzungen
Von „http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zischlaut“
Kategorie: Artikulationsart
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http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/phonetics


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Click consonant:

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Click_consonant&oldid=369874050&printable=yes


Click consonant
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Manners of articulation
Obstruent
Stop
Affricate
Fricative
Sibilant
Sonorant
Nasal
Flaps/Tap
Trill
Approximant
Liquid
Vowel
Semivowel
Lateral
Airstreams
Ejective
Implosive
Click
Alliteration
Assonance
Consonance
This page contains phonetic information in IPA, which may not display correctly in some browsers. [Help]
edit

Clicks are speech sounds found as consonants in many languages of southern Africa, and in three languages of East Africa. Examples of these sounds familiar to English speakers are the tsk! tsk! (American English) or tut-tut (British English) used to express disapproval or pity, the tchick! used to spur on a horse, and the clip-clop! sound children make to imitate a horse trotting.

Technically, clicks are obstruents articulated with two closures (points of contact) in the mouth, one forward and one at the back. The pocket of air enclosed between is rarefied by a sucking action of the tongue (i.e. clicks have a velaric/lingual ingressive airstream mechanism). The forward closure is then released, producing what may be the loudest consonants in the language, although in some languages such as Hadza and Sandawe, clicks can be more subtle and may even be mistaken for ejective stops.
Contents
[hide]

* 1 What clicks sound like
* 2 Languages with clicks
* 3 The airstream
* 4 Types of clicks
* 5 Transcription
* 6 Places of articulation
o 6.1 Names found in the literature
* 7 The back-vowel constraint
* 8 Manners of articulation
* 9 Click genesis and click loss
* 10 Notes
* 11 See also
* 12 References
* 13 External links

What clicks sound like

For several sound samples see articles bilabial clicks, dental clicks, alveolar clicks, lateral clicks, and palatal clicks.

There are five places of articulation at which click consonants occur. In IPA, a click is symbolized by placing the assigned symbol for the place of click articulation adjacent to a symbol for a nonclick sound at the rear place of articulation. The IPA symbols are used in writing most Khoisan languages, but Bantu languages such as Zulu typically use Latin c, x and q for dental, lateral, and alveolar clicks respectively.

* The easiest clicks for English speakers are the dental clicks written with a single pipe, ǀ. They are all sharp (high-pitched) squeaky sounds made by sucking on the front teeth. A simple dental click is used in English to express pity or to shame someone, and sometimes to call an animal, and is written tsk! in American English, or tut-tut! in British English.

* Next most familiar to English speakers are the lateral clicks written with a double pipe, ǁ. They are also squeaky sounds, though less sharp than ǀ, made by sucking on the molars on either side (or both sides) of the mouth. A simple lateral click is made in English to get a horse moving, and is conventionally written tchick!

* Then there are the bilabial clicks, written with a bull's eye, ʘ. These are lip-smacking sounds, but without the pursing of the lips found in a kiss.

The above clicks sound like affricates, in that they involve a lot of friction. The other two families are more abrupt sounds that do not have this friction.

* With the alveolar clicks, written with an exclamation mark, ǃ, the tip of the tongue is pulled down abruptly and forcefully from the roof of the mouth, sometimes using a lot of jaw motion, and making a hollow pop! like a cork being pulled from an empty bottle. These sounds can be quite loud.

* Finally, the palatal clicks, ǂ, are made with a flat tongue, and are softer popping sounds than the ǃ clicks.

Languages with clicks

Clicks occur in all three Khoisan language families of southern Africa, where they may be the most numerous consonants. To a lesser extent they are found in two groups of neighbouring Bantu languages which borrowed them, directly or indirectly, from Khoisan. In the southeast, in eastern South Africa, Swaziland, Lesotho, Zimbabwe, and southern Mozambique, they were adopted from a Tuu language or languages by the languages of the Nguni cluster (especially Zulu, Xhosa, and Phuthi, but also to a lesser extent Swazi and Ndebele), and spread from them in a reduced fashion to the Zulu-based pidgin Fanagalo, Sesotho, Tsonga, and Ronga, and more recently to Ndau and urban varieties of Pedi, where the spread of clicks is an ongoing process. The second point of transfer was near the Caprivi Strip and the Okavango River, where it was apparently the Yeyi language which borrowed the clicks from a West Kalihari Khoe language, and which in turn passed on a reduced click inventory to the neighboring Mbukushu, Kwangali, Gciriku, Kuhane, and Fwe languages in Angola, Namibia, Botswana, and Zambia.[1]

There are three minority languages in East Africa which use clicks: Sandawe and Hadza of Tanzania, as well as Dahalo, an endangered South Cushitic language of Kenya which has clicks in only a few dozen words. It is thought these may remain from an episode of language shift.

The only non-African language known to employ clicks as regular speech sounds is Damin, a ritual code used by speakers of Lardil in Australia. One of the clicks in Damin is actually an egressive click, using the tongue to compress the air in the mouth for an outward (egressive) "spurt".

The Southern African Khoisan languages only utilize root-initial clicks. Hadza, Sandawe, and several of the Bantu languages also allow syllable-initial clicks within roots, but in no known language does a click close a syllable or end a word.

English and many other languages may use clicks in interjections, such as the dental "tsk-tsk" sound used to express disapproval, or the lateral tchick used with horses. In Ningdu Chinese, flapped nasal clicks are used in nursery rhymes, and in Persian, Greek, Maltese and in southern Italian dialects such as Sicilian a click accompanied by tipping the head upwards signifies "no". Clicks occasionally turn up elsewhere, as in the special registers twins sometimes develop with each other, and in onomatopoeic usages.

The fictional native language of the Tenctonese in the film and television series Alien Nation incorporates some soft click consonants.
The airstream

The essence of a click is an ingressive airstream mechanism. However, in nasal clicks the nasalization involves a separate nasal airstream, generally pulmonic egressive but occasionally pulmonic ingressive. Similarly, voiced clicks also require a simultaneous pulmonic egressive airstream to power the voiced phonation.

The front articulation may be coronal or, more rarely, labial. The rear articulation has traditionally been thought to be velar or, again more rarely, uvular. However, recent investigation of Nǀuu has revealed that the supposed velar–uvular distinction is actually one of a simple click versus a click–plosive airstream contour, and that all rear articulations in Nǀuu are uvular or even pharyngeal. Even in languages without such a distinction, such as Xhosa, experiments have shown that when the click release is removed from a recording, the resulting sound is judged to be uvular, not velar. However, it is possible other languages do have a velar articulation.

Since in at least some languages clicks are not velar, some phoneticians have recently come to prefer the term lingual (made with the tongue) as being more accurate for this airstream mechanism than velaric (made with the velum).
Types of clicks

As noted above, clicks necessarily involve at least two closures: an anterior articulation which has traditionally been represented by the special click symbol in the IPA, and a posterior articulation which has been traditionally described as oral or nasal, voiced or voiceless, etc. The literature also describes a contrast between velar and uvular rear articulations for some languages. However, recent work has shown that for languages which make this distinction, all clicks have a uvular, or even pharyngeal, rear closure, and that the clicks explicitly described as uvular are in fact clusters/contours of a click plus a pulmonic consonant, in which the clusters/contour has two release bursts, the click itself and then a uvular consonant. In the case of "velar" clicks in these languages, on the other hand, there is only a single release burst, that of the forward click release, and the release of the rear articulation isn't audible.[citation needed]

Nonetheless, in most of the literature the stated place of the click is the anterior articulation (called the release or influx), while the manner is ascribed to the posterior articulation (called the accompaniment or efflux), as in a "nasal dental click".

There are numerous manners of clicks. These include what has been described as voiceless, voiced, aspirate, breathy voiced, nasal, voiceless nasal, breathy voiced nasal, glottalized, voiceless nasal glottalized, affricate, ejective affricate, prevoiced, prenasalized. In a few of the Khoisan languages, clicks cluster with other obstruents. Examples of such clusters in ǃXóõ a voiced velar click followed by voiceless affricated ejective, [ɡǃkxʼ], and a velar ejective click followed by uvular ejective, [kǃʼqʼ][2].

The size of click inventories ranges from as few as three (in Sesotho) or four (in Dahalo), to dozens in the Juu and Tuu languages (Northern and Southern Khoisan). ǃXóõ, a Tuu language, has fifty click phonemes[2] and over 70% of words in the dictionary of this language begin with a click.[3]

Clicks appear more stop-like or more affricate-like depending on their place of articulation: In southern Africa, clicks involving an apical alveolar or laminal postalveolar closure are acoustically abrupt and sharp, like stops, while bilabial, dental, and lateral clicks typically have longer and acoustically noisier releases that are more like affricates. In East Africa, however, the alveolar clicks tend to be flapped, while the lateral clicks tend to be more sharp and abrupt.
Transcription

The five click releases with dedicated symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) are bilabial ʘ, dental ǀ, palato-alveolar or "palatal" ǂ, (post)alveolar or "retroflex" ǃ, and alveolar lateral ǁ. In most languages, the retroflex and palatal releases are "abrupt"; that is, they are sharp popping sounds with little frication (turbulent airflow). The bilabial, dental, and lateral releases, on the other hand, are typically "noisy": they are longer, lip- or tooth-sucking sounds with turbulent airflow, and are sometimes called affricates. (This applies to the forward articulation; both may also have either an affricate or non-affricate rear articulation as well.) The apical releases, ǃ and ǁ, are sometimes called "grave", because their pitch is dominated by low frequencies; while the laminal releases, ǀ and ǂ, are sometimes called "acute", because they are dominated by high frequencies. (At least in the Nǀu language, this is associated with a difference in the placement of the rear articulation: "grave" clicks are uvular, whereas "acute" clicks are pharyngeal.) Thus the alveolar click /ǃ/ sounds something like a cork pulled from a bottle (a low-pitch pop), at least in Xhosa; while the dental click /ǀ/ is like English tsk! tsk!, a high-pitched sucking on the incisors. The lateral clicks are pronounced by sucking on the molars of one or both sides. The bilabial click /ʘ/ is different from what many people associate with a kiss: the lips are pressed more-or-less flat together, as they are for a [p] or an [m], not rounded as they are for a [w].

The most populous languages with clicks, Zulu and Xhosa, use the letters c, q, x, by themselves and in digraphs, to write click consonants. Most Khoisan languages, on the other hand (with the notable exceptions of Naro and Sandawe), use a more iconic system based on the pipe <|>. (The exclamation point for the "retroflex" click was originally a pipe with a subscript dot, along the lines of ṭ, ḍ, ṇ used to transcribe the retroflex consonants of India.)
Competing orthographies bilabial dental alveolar palatal lateral
Khoisanist ʘ ǀ ǃ ǂ ǁ
old IPA  ʇ ʗ ° ʖ
Bantu c q * x

* The bilabial and palatal clicks do not occur in written Bantu languages. However, the palatal clicks have been romanized in Naron and Juǀʼhõasi, where they are transcribed with tc and ç respectively.

There are a few less well attested articulations, such as a noisy laminal denti-alveolar lateral release (<Ⅲ> [triple pipe] in an ad hoc transcription), which contrasts with an apical postalveolar lateral in Mangetti Dune ǃKung; an abrupt sub-apical retroflex release <‼> in Angolan ǃKung; and a "slapped" alveolar click <ǃ¡> in Hadza and Sandawe, where the tongue slaps the bottom of the mouth after the release. (These distinctions may suffice for the Damin releases as well.) However, the Khoisan languages are poorly attested, and it is quite possible that, as they become better described, more click releases will be found.

In the literature, the places not directly supported by the IPA are transcribed with ad hoc digraphs:
Provisional extended click symbols bilabial dental alveolar retroflex palatal
Central ʘ ǀ ǃ ‼ ǂ
Lateral ǀǀǀ ǁ ǂǂ
Flapped ǃ¡

Typically when a click consonant is transcribed, two symbols are used, one for each articulation, connected with a tie bar. This is because a click such as [ŋ͡ǂ] has been traditionally been analysed as a nasal velar rear articulation [ŋ] pronounced simultaneously with the forward ingressive release [ǂ]. The symbols may be written in either order, depending on the analysis. However, a tie bar is not often used in practice, and when the manner is a simple [k], it will often be omitted as well. That is, <ǂ> = = <ǂk> = = <ǂ͡k>.

The manner of a click is generally written before the release: <ŋ͡ǂ> or <ŋǂ>, and this is preferred by the IPA. However, many Khoisanists prefer to write the manner second: <ǂ͡ŋ> or <ǂŋ>. This is because any diacritics which follow belong to the manner rather than to the forward release, and they are more easily understood when they are made diacritics of the manner. Regardless, elements which do not overlap with the release are always written according to their temporal order: Prenasalization is always written first in <ŋɡ͡ǂ> = <ŋǂ͡ɡ>, and the second ejective is always written second in = <ǂ͡kʼqʼ>.

Some linguists analyze clicks as simplex segments, and use superscripts rather than digraphs for the accompaniments. Thus <ᶢǂ, ᵑǂ> or <ǂᶢ, ǂᵑ> = <ɡ͡ǂ, ŋ͡ǂ>

While the SAMPA encoding for IPA into ASCII doesn't have symbols for transcribing clicks, the proposed X-SAMPA standard does: O\, |\, |\|\, =\, and !. Some instead suggest ||\, #\ or "\ for the alveolar lateral click. The Kirshenbaum system uses a different method: clicks are denoted by digraphs, with the click symbol (always "!") added to the stop homorganic to the release, but with the manner of the accompaniment. For example, /t!/ is a voiceless dental click, and /m!/ is a nasal bilabial click. (This transcription is used in the literature on Damin.) However, the International Phonetic Association recommends using the IPA symbols in Unicode, or using the number codes which they have assigned to each symbol.
Places of articulation

These are often called click types, releases, or influxes. There are seven or eight known releases, not counting slapped or egressive clicks. These are bilabial affricated ʘ, or "bilabial"; laminal denti-alveolar affricated ǀ, or "dental"; apical (post)alveolar plosive ǃ, or "alveolar"; laminal postalveolar (palato-alveolar) plosive ǂ, or "palatal"; subapical postalveolar (retroflex) ǃ˞ (in central Ju); and two lateral clicks, which in the only dialects known to distinguish them (northern Ju) are laminal denti-alveolar lateral ǁ̻ with a forward release, and apical postalveolar lateral ǁ̺ with a rear release. There may be an additional palatal lateral click (a palatal click with a lateral release), provisionally transcribed ǂǂ, in another Ju lect which is currently (2008) being investigated. Given the poor state of documentation of Khoisan languages, it is quite possible that additional releases will turn up. However, no language is known to contrast more than five places of articulation.
Click release
inventory Languages
dental ǀ only Dahalo
alveolar ǃ only Sesotho
3 releases, ǀ, ǃ, ǁ Sandawe, Hadza, Xhosa, Zulu (in Hadza and sometimes Sandawe, ǃ is "slapped";
Hadza also has a single word with ʘ)
4 releases, ǀ, ǂ, ǃ, ǁ Korana, Nama, Yeyi, Zhuǀ'hõasi (southeastern Ju)
4 releases, ǀ, ǂ, ǃ˞, ǁ ǃKung (Grootfontein)
5 releases, ʘ, ǀ, ǂ, ǃ, ǁ ǂHõã, Nǀu, ǀXam, ǃXóõ
5 releases, ǀ, ǂ, ǃ, ǁ̺, ǁ̪ ǃKung (Angola)
5 releases, ʘ, ʘ↑, ǀ, ǃ, ǃ˞ Damin

Extra-linguistically, Coatlán Zapotec of Mexico uses a linguolabial click, [ǀ̼ʔ], as mimesis for a pig drinking water.[4]
Names found in the literature

The terms for the click releases were originally developed by Bleek in 1911. Since then there has been some conflicting variation. Here are the terms used in some of the main references.
Click release Bantu letters Also known as:
ǀ dental c dental affricative/affricated/with friction; alveolar affricated; denti-alveolar; apico-lamino-dental; denti-pharyngeal
ǂ palatal palato-alveolar; alveolar; alveolar instantaneous; denti-alveolar implosive; palato-pharyngeal
ǃ alveolar q cerebral; (post-) alveolar implosive; palato-alveolar; palato-alveolar instantaneous; palatal; palatal retroflex; apico-palatal; central alveo-uvular
ǁ lateral x lateral affricative/with friction; alveolar lateral affricated; post-alveolar lateral; lateral apico-alveo-palatal; lateral alveo-uvular
The back-vowel constraint
The shape of the tongue in Nama when articulating an alveolar click (blue) and a palatal click (red) [throat to the right]. The articulation of the vowel [i] is slightly forward of the red line, with its peak coinciding with the dip of the blue line.

In several languages, including Nama and Ju|’hoansi, the alveolar and lateral clicks only occur, or preferentially occur, before back vowels, while the dental and palatal clicks may occur before any vowel. The effect is most noticeable with the high front vowel [i]. In Nama, for example, the diphthong [əi] is common but [i] is rare after alveolar clicks, whereas the opposite is true after dental and palatal clicks. This is a common effect of uvular or uvularized consonants on vowels in both click and non-click languages. In Taa, for example, the back-vowel constraint is triggered by both alveolar clicks and uvular stops, but not by palatal clicks or velar stops: sequences such as */ǃi/ and */qi/ are rare to non-existent, whereas sequences such as /ǂi/ and /ki/ are common.

Miller et al. (2003) used ultrasound imaging to show that the rear articulation of the alveolar clicks ([ǃ]) in Nama is substantially different that that of palatal and dental clicks. Specifically, the shape of the body of the tongue in palatal clicks is very similar to that of the vowel [i], and involves the same tongue muscles, so that sequences such as [ǂi] involved a simple and quick transition. The rear articulation of the alveolar clicks, however, is several centimeters further back, and involves a different set of muscles in the uvular region. The part of the tongue required to approach the palate for the vowel [i] is deeply retracted in [ǃ], as it lies at the bottom of the air pocket used to create the vacuum required for click airstream. This makes the transition required for [ǃi] much more complex and the timing more difficult than the shallower and more forward tongue position of the palatal clicks. Consequently, [ǃi] takes 50 ms longer to pronounce than [ǂi], the same amount of time required to pronounce [ǃəi].
Manners of articulation

(Data is primarily from Ladefoged; see references at individual language articles.)

Click manners are often called click accompaniments or effluxes, but both terms have met with objections on theoretical grounds.

There is a great variety of click manners, both simplex and complex, the latter variously analysed as consonant clusters or contours. With so few click languages, and so little study of them, it is also unclear to what extent clicks in different languages are equivalent. For example, the [ǃkˀ] of Nama, [ǃkˀ ~ ŋˀǃk] of Sandawe, and [ŋ̊ǃˀ ~ ŋǃkˀ] of Hadza may be essentially the same phone, as may [ǃk͡xʼ] and [ǃq͡χʼ]; no one language distinguishes either set, and the differences in transcription may have more to do with the approach of the linguist than with actual differences in the sounds. Such suspected allophones/allographs are linked through a common bullet in the left-hand column in the table below.

Some Khoisan languages are typologically unusual in allowing mixed voicing in non-click consonant clusters/contours, such as dt͡sʼk͡xʼ, so it is not surprising that they would allow mixed voicing in clicks as well.

There is ongoing discussion as to which clicks are best analysed as consonant clusters. For example, some linguists feel that ejective clicks are not possible, and indeed in many Khoisan languages they appear to be clusters. However, in other languages, phonetic measurements have found that, although the ejective release follows the click release, it is the rear closure of the click that is ejective, not a subsequent consonant. (In Ladefoged's analysis in the table below, if there is only a single segment, this is indicated by a single non-subscript letter for the accompaniment.) This is one reason for analysing such clicks as airstream contours instead of clusters.

Of the languages illustrated below,

* ǃXóõ and Nǀu are Tuu languages
* ǂHoan and Juǀʼhõasi are ǂHoan-Juu languages
* Korana and Gǀui are Khoe languages

(all spoken primarily in Namibia and Botswana; Nama is like Korana except it has lost [ǃk͡xʼ])

* Sandawe and Hadza are language isolates spoken in Tanzania
* Dahalo is a Cushitic language of Kenya
* Xhosa and Yeyi are Bantu languages
* Damin was an initiation jargon in northern Australia.

The four Dahalo manners occur only with a dental release. Damin has only nasal clicks, but in addition has an oral "spurt" that might be considered an egressive click.
IPA Manner ǃXóõ Nǀuu ǂHoan Juǀ’hõa Korana Gǀui Sandawe Hadza Dahalo Xhosa Yeyi Damin
• [ǃk] Tenuis velar plosive •* •* • • • • • • • •
• [ǃkʰ] Aspirated velar plosive •* •* • • • • • • • •
• [ǃkˀ] Tenuis velar plosive and glottal stop •* • • •
[ǃkˀ,
(ŋˀǃk)] Voiceless glottalized velar plosive
(prenasalized between vowels) • • •
[ŋ̊ǃˀ] Voiceless velar nasal and glottal stop •* • •
• [ǃɡ] Voiced velar plosive •* •* • • • • •
• [ǃɡx, ǃɡ͡ɣ, ǃɡʱ] Voiced affricated velar plosive •
[ǃɡʱ] Breathy-voiced velar plosive •* •
• [ǃɡˀ] Creaky velar plosive •*
• [ǃŋ] Voiced velar nasal •* •* • • • • • • • • • •
• [ǃŋʱ] Breathy-voiced velar nasal •
• [ǃŋ̊] Voiceless velar nasal •* •
• [ŋ̊ǃh] Voiceless delayed-aspirated velar nasal •* • • • •
[ŋ̊↓ǃh] Voiceless ingressive pulmonic nasal with delayed aspiration •
• [ʔǃŋ] Preglottalized velar nasal •* •
• [ŋǃŋ̊ʰ] Voiced velar nasal, plus voiceless aspirated velar nasal •
• [ǃq] Tenuis uvular plosive • • • •
• [ǃqʰ] Aspirated uvular plosive • • •
• [ǃk͡x] Voiceless affricated velar plosive • •
[ǃq͡χ] Voiceless affricated uvular plosive • • •
• [ǃqʼ] Uvular ejective • • •
• [ǃk͡xʼ] Affricated velar ejective • • •
[ǃq͡χʼ] Affricated uvular ejective • • •
[ǃkʼqʼ, ǃkʼk͡xʼ] Voiceless velar ejective, plus uvular ejective •
• [ǃɡh, ǃɡkʰ] Voiced velar plosive followed by aspiration • •
• [ǃɡk͡x] Voiced velar plosive, plus voiceless velar fricative •
• [ǃɡk͡xʼ] Voiced velar plosive, plus voiceless affricated ejective (perhaps /ǃɡʱ/) •
• [(ɴ)ǃɢ] Voiced uvular plosive (usually prenasalized) • • •
• [(ɴ)ǃɢh, (ɴ)ǃɢx, (ɴ)ǃɢʀ] Voiced (or prenasalized) uvular plosive, plus aspiration, velar fricative, or uvular trill •

A DoBeS (2008) study found several additional manners for ǃXóõ. However, these were reanalized as consonant clusters, leaving this most complex inventory in the table above with only nine manners of clicks (these are asterisked in the table): tenuis /kǂ/, voiced /ɡǂ/, aspirated /kǂʰ/, breathy voiced /ɡǂʱ/ (which Traill had analyzed as a cluster /ɡǂqʰ/), ejective /kǂʼ/, creaky /ɡǂˀ/, nasal /ŋǂ/, a true voiceless nasal /ŋ̊ǂ/, and preglottalized nasal /ˀŋǂ/ (which Traill had analyzed as a cluster /ˀnkǂ/). Those believed to be clusters are [qǂ] = /kǂq/, [ɢǂ] = /ɡǂq/, [kǂʰ] = /kǂqʰ/, [ɡǂh] = /ɡǂqʰ ~ ɡǂɢʱ/, [qǂʼ] = /kǂqʼ/, /ɡǂqʼ/, [kǂˣ] = /kǂx/, [ɡǂx] = /ɡǂx/, [kǂʼqʼ] = /kǂqxʼ/, [ɡǂqʼ] = /ɡǂqxʼ/, [kǂˀ] = /kǂʔ/, /ɡǂʔ ~ ŋǂʔ/, [↓ŋ̊ǂʰ] = /kǂh ~ ŋ̊ǂh/, [ɢǂh] = /ɡǂh ~ ŋǂh/.

Similarly, Miller (2007) found six of the ten manners in Nǀu to be simple clicks, with the other four being airstream contours.
Click genesis and click loss

Clicks are often portrayed as a primitive or primordial feature of human language, but there is no reason to suspect that they are very old compared to other speech sounds. In fact, given their complexity, they may be relatively recent. How clicks arose is not currently known. Some linguists speculate that clicks were initially used for taboo avoidance and then borrowed into regular speech. (Compare Damin.) Others suggest that they developed from other complex consonants. For example, the Sandawe word for 'horn', [tɬana], with a lateral affricate, may be a cognate with the root [ŋǁaː] found throughout the Khoe family, which has a lateral click. This and other words suggests that at least some Khoe clicks may have formed from consonant clusters when the first vowel of a word was lost; in this instance [tɬana] → [tɬna] → [ǁŋa] (= [ŋǁa]).

On the other side of the equation, several non-endangered languages in vigorous use demonstrate click loss. For example, the East Kalahari languages have lost a large percentage of their clicks, presumably due to Bantu influence. As a rule, a click is replaced by a consonant with the manner of articulation of the accompaniment and the place of articulation of the forward release: alveolar click releases (the [ǃ] family) tend to mutate into a velar stop or affricate, such as [k], [ɡ], [ŋ], [k͡x]; palatal clicks ([ǂ] etc.) tend to mutate into a palatal stop such as [c], [ɟ], [ɲ], [cʼ], or a post-alveolar affricate [tʃ], [dʒ]; and dental clicks ([ǀ] etc.) tend to mutate into an alveolar affricate [ts].
Notes

1. ^ Derek Nurse & Gérard Philippson (2003) The Bantu languages, pp 31–32
2. ^ a b L&M 1996, p 266
3. ^ L&M 1996, p 246
4. ^ Rosemary Beam de Azcona, Sound Symbolism. Available at http://www.linguistics.berkeley.edu/~rosemary/55-fall2003-onomatopoeia.pdf

See also

* List of phonetics topics

References

* Ladefoged, Peter. 1968. A phonetic study of West African languages: An auditory-instrumental survey. Cambridge University Press, 2nd edition. ISBN 0-521-06963-7
* Ladefoged, Peter; Ian Maddieson (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-19814-8.
* Amanda Miller, Levi Namaseb, Khalil Iskarous. 2003. Tongue Body constriction differences in click types.
* Traill, Anthony & Rainer Vossen. 1997. Sound change in the Khoisan languages: new data on click loss and click replacement. J African Languages and Linguistics 18:21-56.

External links

* Collection of click-language links and audio samples.
* Nicholas Wade, "How an ancient click clique started our mother tongue", The Age,19 March 2003.
* Hartmut Traunmüller (2003) "Clicks and the idea of a human protolanguage", Phonum 9: 1 - 4 (Umeå University, Dept. of Philosophy and Linguistics)
* Classifying clicks
* The clicks in Russian language

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Sibilant consonant
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Manners of articulation
Obstruent
Stop
Affricate
Fricative
Sibilant
Sonorant
Nasal
Flaps/Tap
Trill
Approximant
Liquid
Vowel
Semivowel
Lateral
Airstreams
Ejective
Implosive
Click
Alliteration
Assonance
Consonance
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A sibilant is a type of fricative or affricate consonant, made by directing a jet of air through a narrow channel in the vocal tract towards the sharp edge of the teeth. Strident refers to the perceptual intensity of the sound of a sibilant consonant. A strident sound could be described as harsh, insistent, and discordant. In phonetics and acoustics the term sibilant is also used to describe the articulatory or aerodynamic mechanisms that produce strident noise. By analogy, the terms shibilant and thibilant are used to refer to specifically postalveolar sibilants and non-strident analogues, respectively.
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Acoustics
* 2 Whistled sibilants
* 3 Inventories
* 4 Contested definitions
* 5 Symbols
* 6 See also
* 7 References
o 7.1 Notes

Acoustics

Sibilants are louder than their non-sibilant counterparts, and most of their acoustic energy occurs at higher frequencies than non-sibilant fricatives. [s] has the most acoustic strength at around 8,000 Hz, but can reach as high as 10,000 Hz. [ʃ] has the bulk of its acoustic energy at around 4,000 Hz, but can extend up to around 8,000 Hz.
Whistled sibilants

Whistled sibilants occur in speech pathology and may be caused by dental prostheses or orthodontics. However, they also occur phonemically in several southern Bantu languages, the best known being Shona. These have been variously described—as labialized but not velarized, retroflex, etc., but none of these articulations are required for the sounds.[1] Using the Extended IPA, Shona sv and zv may be transcribed [s͎] and [z͎]. Other transcriptions seen include purely labial [s̫] and [z̫] (Ladefoged and Maddieson 1996) and labially co-articulated [s͡ɸ] and [z͡β].
Inventories

Only the alveolar and palato-alveolar sibilants are distinguished in English; the former may be either apical or laminal, while the latter are usually apical, slightly labialized and generally called simply "postalveolar": [s̺ z̺] or [s̻ z̻] and [ʃʷ̜ ʒʷ̜]), as in sin [s̻ɪn] and shin [ʃʷ̜ɪn]. Although laminal and apical sibilants are not distinguished in English, Basque does distinguish these two phonemically, as well as having true postalveolars ([s̺] [s̻] [ʃ]). Polish and Russian have laminal denti-alveolars, palatalized denti-alveolars, flat postalveolars, and alveolo-palatals ([s̪ z̪] [s̪ʲ z̪ʲ] [s̠ z̠] [ɕ ʑ]), whereas Mandarin has apical alveolars, flat postalveolars, and alveolo-palatals ([s̺ z̺] [s̠ z̠] [ɕ ʑ]).

Few languages distinguish more than three series of sibilants without secondary articulation, but Ubykh has four series of plain sibilants, [s z], [ŝ ẑ ŝʷ ẑʷ], [ɕ ʑ ɕʷ ʑʷ], [ʂ ʐ], as does the Bzyp dialect of the related Abkhaz, and the Chinese dialect of Qinan, in Shandong province, is said to have five. Toda has a laminal alveolar, an apical postalveolar, laminal domed postalveolars, and sub-apical palatals. Since two of these could be called 'retroflex', Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 have resurrected the old IPA diacritic for retroflex, the underdot, for apical retroflexes, and reserve the letters ‹ʂ, ʐ› for sub-apical retroflexes. Thus the Toda sibilants can be transcribed [s̪] [ṣ] [ʃ̻ ʒ̻] [ʂ ʐ], although the official IPA symbols [s̪] [s̠] [ʃ̻ ʒ̻] [ʂ ʐ] are also sufficient. (In some publications the underdot and underbar are interchanged.)
Contested definitions

Authors including Chomsky and Halle group [⁠f] and [⁠v] as sibilants. However, they do not have the grooved articulation and high frequencies of other sibilants, and most phoneticians[2] continue to group them together with the bilabial fricatives [⁠ɸ, β] as non-sibilant anterior fricatives. For a grouping of sibilants and [f, v], the term strident is more common. Some researchers judge [⁠f] to be strident in one language, e.g. the African language Ewe, as determined by experimental measurements of amplitude, but as non-strident in English.

The nature of sibilants as so-called 'obstacle fricatives' is complicated - there is a continuum of possibilities relating to the angle at which the jet of air may strike an obstacle. The grooving often considered necessary for classification as a sibilant has been observed in ultrasound studies of the tongue for supposedly non-sibilant [θ] voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative.[3]
Symbols

The following sibilants are in the International Phonetic Alphabet:

Alveolar:

* [s], [z] (either apical or laminal).

Postalveolar:

* [ʃ], [ʒ] (Palato-alveolar: that is, "domed" (partially palatalized) postalveolar, either laminal or apical)

* [ɕ], [ʑ] (Alveolo-palatal: that is, laminal palatalized postalveolar; these are equivalent to ʃʲ, ʒʲ)

* [ʂ], [ʐ]: (Retroflex, which can mean one of three things: (a) non-palatalized apical postalveolar, (b) sub-apical postalveolar or pre-palatal, or (c) non-palatalized laminal ("flat") postalveolar, sometimes transcribed [s̠ z̠] or [ʂ̻ ʐ̻].

Diacritics can be used for finer detail. For example, apical and laminal alveolars can be specified as [s̺] vs [s̻]; a dental (or more likely denti-alveolar) sibilant as [s̪]; a palatalized alveolar as [sʲ]; and a generic postalveolar as [s̠], a transcription frequently used when none of the above apply (that is, for a laminal but non-palatalized, or "flat", postalveolar). Some of the Northwest Caucasian languages also have a closed laminal postalveolar, without IPA symbols but provisionally transcribed as [ŝ ẑ].
See also

* plosives
* strident vowels

References

* Ladefoged, Peter; Ian Maddieson (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-19814-8.
* Shosted, Ryan K. (2006) Just put your lips together and blow? The whistled fricatives of Southern Bantu.

Notes


1. ^ Shosted 2006
2. ^ Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996

3. ^ Stone and Lundberg, 1996, Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, vol. 99: 3728-3737

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